The impact of autonomy and temporal flexibility on individuals’ psychological well-being in remote settings
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.7433/s118.2022.15Keywords:
job autonomy; temporal flexibility; work engagement; job satisfaction; boundary theory; well-being; forced remote workingAbstract
Purpose of the paper: This empirical study investigates the relationship between job autonomy, temporal flexibility and the psychological well-being of employees, as represented by work engagement and job satisfaction, and mediated by work-life balance within a forced remote working context.
Methodology: A quantitative approach was adopted. The data was gathered through a survey administered to 1,550 workers during the lockdown and analyzed through Structural Equation Modelling.
Findings: We show that temporal flexibility and job autonomy enhance the work-life balance of employees and, through the mediation of this construct, positively affect the psychological well-being of employees, measured in terms of work engagement and job satisfaction.
Research limits: The present research presents some limitations from both theoretical and methodological perspectives. Although temporal flexibility directly impacts work-life balance, this relationship could also be examined through the mediating role of job autonomy. The measure scales adopted in the scientific literature were modified in line with the guidelines provided by the investigated organization, thus partially changing their robustness.
Practical implications: Our research also provides useful implications for managers who must tackle the challenges of remote working that emerged during the pandemic and will characterize the new conception of normal after COVID-19.
Originality of the paper: This study is the first to investigate the impact of the only factors related to flexibility that were experienced by employees during lockdown on two components of psychological well-being, i.e. work engagement and job satisfaction, through work-life balance.
References
ALLEN T.D., HERST D.E., BRUCK C.S., SUTTON M. (2000), “Consequences associated with work-to-family conflict: a review and agenda for future research”, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, vol. 5, n. 2, pp. 278-281.
ALLEN T.D., JOHNSON R.C., KIBURZ K.M., SHOCKLEY K.M. (2013), “Work-family conflict and flexible work arrangements: Deconstructing flexibility”, Personnel Psychology, vol. 66, n. 2, pp. 345-376.
AMIR M.T. (2020), “How coworking space impacts innovation: A literature review”, Digital Economy for Customer Benefit and Business Fairness, vol. 126, pp. 126-130.
APPELBAUM E., BAILEY T., BERG P., KALLEBERG A.L. (2000), Manufacturing Advantage: WhyHigh Performance Work Systems Pay Off, Cornell University Press, New York.
APPELBAUM E. (2015), High-performance work practices and sustainable economic growth, EPRN.
APPELBAUM E., BAILEY T., BERG P., KALLEBERG A. (2005), Organizations and the intersection of work and family: A comparative perspective, The Oxford handbook of work and organization, pp. 121-131.
ARNETT D.B., LAVERIE D.A., MCLANE C. (2002), “Using job satisfaction and pride as internal-marketing tools”, Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, vol. 43, n. 2, pp. 87-96.
ASHFORTH B.E., KREINER G.E., FUGATE M. (2000), “All in a Day’s Work: Boundaries and Micro Role Transitions”, The Academy of Management Review, vol. 25, n. 3, pp. 472-491.
ATTRIDGE M. (2009), “Measuring and managing employee work engagement: A review of the research and business literature”, Journal of Workplace Behavioral Health, vol. 24 n. 4, pp. 383-398.
BABIN B.J., HAIR J.F., BOLES J.S. (2008), “Publishing research in marketing journals using structural equation modeling”, Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, vol. 16, n. 4, pp. 279-286.
BABORE A., LOMBARDI L., VICECONTI M.L., PIGNATARO S., MARINO V., CRUDELE M., TRUMELLO C. (2020), “Psychological effects of the COVID-2019 pandemic: Perceived stress and coping strategies among healthcare professionals”, Psychiatry Research, vol. 293, p. 113366.
BADRI S.K.Z., PANATIK S.A. (2020), “The roles of job autonomy and self-efficacy to improve academics’ work-life balance”, Asian Academy of Management Journal, vol. 25, n. 2, pp. 85-108.
BAILYN L. (1997), “The impact of corporate culture on work-family integration”, In Parasuraman S., Greenhaus J.H. (Eds.), Integrating work and family: Challenges and choices for a changing world, Westport, CT: Quorum Books, pp. 209-219
BAKKER A.B. (2015), “Top-down and bottom-up interventions to increase work engagement”, APA Handbook of Career Intervention, vol. 2, pp. 427-438.
BAKKER A.B., DEMEROUTI E., LIEKE L. (2012), “Work engagement, performance, and active learning: The role of conscientiousness”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, vol. 80, n. 2, pp. 555-564.
BAKKER A.B., DEMEROUTI E., SCHAUFELI W.B. (2005), “The crossover of burnout and work engagement among working couples”, Human Relations, vol. 58, n. 5, pp. 661-689.
BAL P.M., DE LANGE A.H. (2015), “From flexibility human resource management to employee engagement and perceived job performance across the lifespan: A multisample study”, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, vol. 88 n. 1, pp. 126-154.
BANU A., DURAIPANDIAN K. (2014), “Development of an instrument to measure work life balance of it professionals in Chennai”, International Journal of Management, vol. 5 n. 11, pp. 21- 33.
BALTES B.B., BRIGGS T.E., HUFF J.W., WRIGHT J.A., NEUMAN G.A. (1999), “Flexible and compressed workweek schedules: A meta-analysis of their effects on work-related criteria”, Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 84, n. 4, pp. 496.
BELTRÁN-MARTÍN I., ROCA-PUIG V., ESCRIG-TENA A., BOU-LLUSAR J.C. (2008), “Human resource flexibility as a mediating variable between high performance work systems and performance”, Journal of Management, vol. 34, n. 5, pp. 1009-1044.
BENTLER P.M. (1990), “Comparative fit indexes in structural models”, Psychological Bulletin, vol. 107, pp. 238.
BOHEN H.H., VIVEROS-LONG A. (1981), Balancing jobs and family life: Do flexible schedules help?, Temple University Press, Philadelphia.
BORST R.T., KRUYEN P.M., LAKO C.J. (2019), “Exploring the job demands-resources model of work engagement in government: Bringing in a psychological perspective”, Review of Public Personnel Administration, vol. 39, n. 3, pp. 372-397.
BRAY J.W., HINDE J.M., KAISER D.J., MILLS M.J., KARUNTZOS G.T., GENADEK K.R., HURTADO D.A. (2018), “Effects of a flexibility/support intervention on work performance: Evidence from the work, family, and health network”, American Journal of Health Promotion, vol. 32, n. 4, pp. 963-970.
BREEVAART K., BAKKER A.B., DEMEROUTI E. (2014), “Daily self-management and employee work engagement”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, vol. 84, n. 1, pp. 31-38.
BROWNE M.W., CUDECK R. (1989), “Single sample cross-validation indices for covariance structures”, Multivariate Behavioral Research, vol. 24, pp. 445-455.
BYRNE Z.S., PETERS J.M., WESTON J.W. (2016), “The struggle with employee engagement: Measures and construct clarification using five samples”, Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 101, n. 9, pp. 1201.
CAMMANN C., FICHMAN M., JENKINS D., KLESH J. (1979), The Michigan Organizational Assessment Questionnaire, Unpublished manuscript, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
CAMPBELL CLARK S. (2001), “Work Cultures and Work/Family Balance”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, vol. 58, pp. 348-365
CARLSON D., GRZYWACZ J., ZIVNUSKA S. (2009), “Is work-family balance more than conflict and enrichment?”, Human Relations, vol. 62, pp. 1459-1486.
CASPER W.J., BUFFARDI L.C. (2004), “Work-Life Benefits and Job Pursuit Intentions: The Role of Anticipated Organizational Support”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, n. 65, pp. 391-410.
CHRISTIAN M.S., GARZA A.S., SLAUGHTER J.E. (2011), “Work engagement: A quantitative review and test of its relations with task and contextual performance”, Personnel Psychology, vol. 64, n. 1, pp. 89-136.
CLARK S.C. (2001), “Work cultures and work/family balance”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, vol. 58, n. 3, pp. 348-365.
DECI E.L., RYAN R.M. (2008), “Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health”, Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne, vol. 49, pp. 182-185.
DEERY S.J., MAHONY A. (1994), “Temporal flexibility: Management strategies and employee preferences in the retail industry”, Journal of Industrial Relations, vol. 36, n. 3, pp. 332-352.
DEMEROUTI E., BAKKER A.B., NACHREINER F., SCHAUFELI W.B. (2001), “The job demands-resources model of burnout”, Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 86, n. 3, pp. 499-512.
EASTMAN J.K., GOLDSMITH R.E., FLYNN L.R. (1999), “Status consumption in consumer behavior: Scale development and validation”, Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, vol. 7, n. 3, pp. 41-52.
FERDOUS T., ALI M., FRENCH E. (2021), “Use of flexible work practices and employee outcomes: The role of work-life balance and employee age”, Journal of Management and Organization, pp. 1-21.
GERARDS R., DE GRIP A., BAUDEWIJNS C. (2018), “Do new ways of working increase work engagement?”, Personnel Review, vol. 47, n. 2, pp. 517-534.
GONZÁLEZ-ROMÁ V., SCHAUFELI W.B., BAKKER A.B., LLORET S. (2006), “Burnout and work engagement: Independent factors or opposite poles?”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, vol. 68, n. 1, pp. 165-174.
GORENAK M., EDELHEIM J.R., BRUMEN B. (2020), “The influence of organizational values on job satisfaction of employees”, Human Systems Management, vol. 39, n. 3, pp. 329-343.
GÖZÜKARA İ., ŞIMŞEK O.F. (2015), “Role of Leadership in Employees’ Work Engagement: Organizational Identification and Job Autonomy”, International Journal of Biometrics, vol. 11, n. 72.
GRANT A.M., CHRISTIANSON M.K., PRICE R.H. (2007), “Happiness, health, or relationships? Managerial practices and employee well-being tradeoffs”, Academy of Management Perspectives, n. 21, pp. 51-63
GREENHAUS J.H., BEUTELL N.J. (1985), “Sources of conflict between work and family roles”, Academy of Management Review, vol. 10, pp. 76-88.
GRIFFITH T.L., NORDBÄCK E., SAWYER J.E., RICE R.E. (2015), “Back to Basics: Facilitating Engagement in Modern Work Environments”, 2015 48th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, pp. 1829-1838
GUIDO G., UGOLINI M.M., SESTINO A. (2022), “Active ageing of elderly consumers: insights and opportunities for future business strategies!”, SN Business and Economics, vol. 2, n. 1, pp. 1-24.
GUGLIELMI D., AVANZI L., CHIESA R., MARIANI M.G., BRUNI I., DEPOLO M. (2016), “Positive aging in demanding workplaces: The gain cycle between job satisfaction and work engagement”, Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 7, pp. 1224.
HAAR J.M., RUSSO M., SUÑE A., OLLIER-MALATERRE A. (2014), “Outcomes of work-life balance on job satisfaction, life satisfaction and mental health: A study across seven cultures”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, vol. 85, n. 3, pp. 361-373.
HACKMAN J.R., OLDHAM G.R. (1975), “Development of the job diagnostic survey”, Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 60, n. 2, pp. 159.
HACKMAN J.R., OLDHAM G.R. (2005), How job characteristics theory happened, The Oxford handbook of management theory: The Process of Theory Development, pp. 151-170.
HAYNIE J.J., MOSSHOLDER K.W., HARRIS S.G. (2016), “Justice and job engagement: The role of senior management trust”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, vol. 37, pp. 889- 910.
HILL E.J., FERRIS M., MÄRTINSON V. (2003), “Does it matter where you work? A comparison of how three work venues (traditional office, virtual office, and home office) influence aspects of work and personal/family life”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, vol. 63, n. 2, pp. 220-241.
HU R. (2020), “COVID-19, smart work, and collaborative space: A crisis-opportunity perspective”, Journal of Urban Management, vol. 9, n. 3, pp. 276-280.
JANZ B.D., COLQUITT J.A., NOE R.A. (1997), “Knowledge worker team effectiveness: The role of autonomy, interdependence, team development, and contextual support variables”, Personnel Psychology, vol. 50, n.4, pp. 877-904.
JOHNSON R.R. (2012), “Police Officer Job Satisfaction: A Multidimensional Analysis”, Police Quarterly, n. 15, pp. 157-176.
KELLIHER C., ANDERSON D. (2010), “Doing more with less? Flexible working practices and the intensification of work”, Human Relations, vol. 63, n. 1, pp. 83-106.
KIRCHMEYER C. (2000), “Work-life initiatives: Greed or benevolence regarding workers’ time?”, In Cooper C.L., Rousseau D.M. (Eds.), Trends in organizational behavior, Vol. 7. Time in organizational behavior (pp. 79-93), John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
KINMAN G., JONES F. (2008), “A life beyond work? Job demands, work-life balance, and well-being in UK academics”, Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, vol. 17, n. 1-2, pp. 41-60.
KLINE R.B. (1998), “Software review: Software programs for structural equation modeling: Amos, EQS, and LISREL”, J. Psychoeduc. Assess., n. 16, pp. 343-364.
KNIFFIN K.M., NARAYANAN J., ANSEEL F., ANTONAKIS J., ASHFORD S.P., BAKKER A.B., VUGT M.V. (2021), “COVID-19 and the workplace: Implications, issues, and insights for future research and action”, American Psychologist, vol. 76, n. 1, pp. 63.
KNIGHT C., PATTERSON M., DAWSON J., BROWN J. (2017), “Building and sustaining work engagement-a participatory action intervention to increase work engagement in nursing staff”, European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, vol. 26, n. 5, pp. 634-649.
KOSSEK E.E., LAUTSCH B.A., EATON S.C. (2006), “Telecommuting, control, and boundary management: Correlates of policy use and practice, job control, and work-family effectiveness”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, vol. 68, n. 2, pp. 347-367.
KOSSEK E.E., VALCOUR M., LIRIO P. (2014), Organizational strategies for promoting work-life balance and well-being, Work and Well-being, pp. 295-318.
KUMAR S., SARKAR S., CHAHAR B. (2021), “A systematic review of work-life integration and role of flexible work arrangements”, International Journal of Organizational Analysis, in press.
LANGÉ V., GASTALDI L. (2020), “Coping Italian Emergency COVID-19 Through Smart Working: From Necessity to Opportunity”, Journal of Mediterranean Knowledge, vol. 5, n. 1, pp. 163-171.
LOCKE E.A. (1976), The nature and causes of job satisfaction, Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology, pp. 1297-1349.
LOCKWOOD N.R. (2003), Work/life balance. Challenges and Solutions, SHRM Research, USA, pp. 2-10.
MACEACHEN E., POLZER J., CLARKE J. (2008), “You are free to set your own hours: Governing worker productivity and health through flexibility and resilience”, Social Science and Medicine, vol. 66, n. 5, pp. 1019-1033.
MAS-MACHUCA M., BERBEGAL-MIRABENT J., ALEGRE I. (2016), “Work-life balance and its relationship with organizational pride and job satisfaction”, Journal of Managerial Psychology, vol. 31, n. 2, pp. 586-602.
MASUDA A.D., HOLTSCHLAG C., NICKLIN J.M. (2017), “Why the availability of telecommuting matters: The effects of telecommuting on engagement via goal pursuit”, Career Development International, vol. 22, n. 2, pp. 200-219.
MEDSKER G.J., WILLIAMS L.J., HOLAHAN P.J. (1994), “A review of current practices for evaluating causal models in organizational behavior and human resources management research”, Journal of Management, vol. 20, n. 2, pp. 439-464.
MICHEL J.S., KOTRBA L.M., MITCHELSON J.K., CLARK M.A., BALTES B.B. (2011), “Antecedents of work-family conflict: A meta‐analytic review”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, vol. 32, n. 5, pp. 689-725.
MORGESON F.P., HUMPHREY S.E. (2006), “The Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ): Developing and Validating a Comprehensive Measure for Assessing Job Design and the Nature of Work”, Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 91, n. 6, pp. 1321-1339.
MUBAROQ S.R., ABDULLAH A.G., SETIAWAN A.G.U.S. (2020), “The evolution of smart working and sustainability in socio-technical perspective: a scientometrics technology analysis”, Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, vol. 15, n. 3, pp. 1868-1882.
MURMURA F., BRAVI L. (2021), Digitization and Sustainability: Smart Working as an ICT Tool to Improve the Sustainable Performance of Companies During the Covid-19 Pandemic, Digital Transformation in Industry, Springer, Cham, pp. 97-108.
MUTHÉN L.K., MUTHÉN B.O. (1998-2015) Mplus user’s guide (7th ed), Muthén & Muthén, Los Angeles.
NEIROTTI P., RAGUSEO E., GASTALDI L. (2019), “Designing Flexible Work Practices for Job Satisfaction: The Relation Between Job Characteristics and Work Disaggregation in Different Types of Work Arrangements”, New Technology, Work and Employment, vol. 34, n. 2, pp. 116-138.
NIPPERT-ENG C.E. (1996), Home and work: Negotiating boundaries through everyday life, University of Chicago Press., Chicago.
OZCELIK H., BARSADE S. (2018), “No Employee an Island: Workplace Loneliness and Job Performance”, Academy of Management Journal, vol. 61.
OZYILMAZ A. (2020), “Hope and human capital enhance job engagement to improve workplace outcomes”, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, vol. 93, n. 1, pp. 187-214.
PAVOT W., DIENER E. (2008), “The satisfaction with life scale and the emerging construct of life satisfaction”, Journal of Positive Psychology, vol. 3, n. 2, pp. 137-152.
PIRZADEH P., LINGARD H. (2021), “Working from Home during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Health and Well-Being of Project-Based Construction Workers”, Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, vol. 147, n. 6.
PODSAKOFF P.M., MACKENZIE S.B., LEE J.Y., PODSAKOFF N.P. (2003), “Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies”, Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 88, n. 5, pp. 879.
PRASADA K.D.V., VAIDYA R.W., MANGIPUDIC M.R. (2020), “Effect of occupational stress and remote working on psychological well-being of employees: an empirical analysis during covid-19 pandemic concerning information technology industry in Hyderabad”, Indian Journal of Commerce and Management Studies, vol. 11, pp. 1-13.
RAGUSEO E., GASTALDI L., NEIROTTI P. (2016), “Smart Work: Supporting Employees’ Flexibility through ICT, HR practices and office layout”, Evidence-based HRM, vol. 4, n. 3, pp. 240-256.
RAINEY H.G. (2009), Understanding and managing public organizations, San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons
RANI U., FURRER M. (2021), “Digital labour platforms and new forms of flexible work in developing countries: Algorithmic management of work and workers”, Competition and Change, vol. 25, n. 2, pp. 212-236.
RAU B.L., HYLAND M.A.M. (2002), “Role conflict and flexible work arrangements: The effects on applicant attraction”, Personnel Psychology, vol. 55, n. 1, pp. 111-136.
RICH B.L., LEPINE J.A., CRAWFORD E.R. (2010), “Job engagement: Antecedents and effects on job performance”, Academy of Management Journal, vol. 53, n. 3, pp. 617-635.
ROTHBARD N.P., PHILLIPS K.W., DUMAS T.L. (2005), “Managing Multiple Roles: Work-Family Policies and Individuals’ Desires for Segmentation”, Organization Science, vol. 16, n. 3, pp. 243-258.
ROZARIO P.A., HOWELL N.M., HINTERLONG J.E. (2004), “Role enhancement or role strain: examining the impact of multiple roles on family caregivers”, Research on Aging, vol. 26, pp. 413-428.
RYAN R.M., DECI E.L. (2000), “Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being”, American Psychologist, vol. 55, n. 1, pp. 68-78.
RYAN R.M., DECI E.L. (2001), “On happiness and human potentials: A review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being”, Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 52, n.1, pp. 141-166.
SALAS-VALLINA A., VIDAL J. (2018), “Happiness at work: Developing a shorter measure”, Journal of Management and Organization, vol. 27, pp. 1-21.
SCHAUFELI W.B., SALANOVA M., GONZÁLEZ-ROMÁ V., BAKKER A.B. (2002), “The measurement of engagement and burnout: A two sample confirmatory factor analytic approach”, Journal of Happiness Studies, vol. 3, n. 1, pp. 71-92.
SCHAUFELI W.B., SHIMAZU A., HAKANEN J., SALANOVA M., DE WITTE H. (2017), “An ultra-short measure for work engagement”, European Journal of Psychological Assessment, vol. 35, pp. 1-15.
SCHWALBE M.L. (1985), “Autonomy in work and self‐esteem”, Sociological Quarterly, vol. 26, n. 4, pp. 519-535.
SCHMOLL R., SÜß S. (2019), “Working Anywhere, Anytime: An Experimental Investigation of Workplace Flexibility’s Influence on Organizational Attraction”, Management Revue, vol. 30, n. 10.
SIEBER S.D. (1974), “Toward a theory of role accumulation”, American Sociological Review, vol. 39, n. 4, pp. 567-578.
SIMPSON M.R. (2009), “Engagement at work: A review of the literature”, International Journal of Nursing Studies, vol. 46, n. 7, pp. 1012-1024.
SIRGY M.J., LEE D.J. (2018), “Work-life balance: An integrative review”, Applied Research in Quality of Life, vol. 13, n. 1, pp. 229-254.
SPECTOR P.E. (1997), Job satisfaction: Application, assessment, causes, and consequences (Vol. 3), Sage.
STEIGER J.H. (1990), “Structural model evaluation and modification: An interval estimation approach”, Multivariate Behavioral Research, vol. 25, n. 2, pp. 173-180.
STRYKER S. (1980), Symbolic interactionism: A social structural version, Menlo Park, CA: Benjamin/Cummings.
VIGAN F.A., GIAUQUE D. (2018), “Job satisfaction in African public administrations: a systematic review”, International Review of Administrative Sciences, vol. 84, n. 3, pp. 596-610.
VOYDANOFF P. (2005), “Toward a conceptualization of perceived work-family fit and balance: A demands and resources approach”, Journal of Marriage and Family, vol. 67, n. 4, pp. 822-836.
WANG B., LIU Y., QIAN J., PARKER S.K. (2021), “Achieving effective remote working during the COVID‐19 pandemic: A work design perspective”, Applied Psychology, vol. 70, n. 1, pp. 16-59.
WRIGHT T.A., CROPANZANO R. (2000), “Psychological well-being and job satisfaction as predictors of job performance”, Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, vol. 5, n. 1, pp. 84.
ZHONG L., WAYNE S.J., LIDEN R.C. (2016), “Job engagement, perceived organizational support, high‐performance human resource practices, and cultural value orientations: A cross‐level investigation”, Journal of Organizational Behavior, vol. 37, n. 6, pp. 823-844.
